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MussoliniвЂ™s appeal to the Italian working and lower-middle class was only partly economic it was equally that of a veteran to veterans. The disparity between ItalyвЂ™s entitlement, as Italians perceived it, and her post-war inheritance lay at the root of the fascist revolution which overwhelmed established order in the kingdom in 1922. Moreover, when the United States and Britain decided in 1921 to fix treaty limits on the size of fleet which the Allied powers were to be allowed to operate, Italy was obliged to accept constraints which effectively set its naval strength at the same level as the Royal NavyвЂ™s in the Mediterranean вЂ“ a sea in which it reasonably felt it had claims to be predominant. All Italy got was a small slice of former Austrian territory and a foothold in the Near East which proved untenable. France and Britain divided between themselves GermanyвЂ™s colonies and TurkeyвЂ™s Arabian dominions, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Iraq and Transjordan. Italy had won its place among the victors but, although 600,000 young Italians had given their lives to the Allied cause, neither Britain nor France would allow Italy the spoils it felt it had won. Surprised in a twelfth battle in November 1917 by a German intervention force, in which the young Rommel was one of the most enterprising junior officers, the Italian army was thrown back into the plain of Venice but recovered enough by late 1918 to go over to the attack and end the war with its self-esteem restored. Beginning in May 1915, when Italy threw in its lot with Britain, France and Russia, the Italians mounted eleven successive offensives into the Julian Alps, winning little ground but suffering heavy casualties. Although their efforts were disparaged, the Italians fought with tenacity and courage against the Austrians on the most difficult of all fronts contested by the Allies between 19. No war cost Italy more than the First World War, its experience of which explains almost everything about its domestic and international conduct in the years that followed. The Italian expeditionary force which met the Ethiopians at Adowa in 1896 was one of the few European armies to suffer defeat at the hands of indigenous forces throughout the course of the imperial conquest of the continent while its avenging of Adowa in the successful campaign against the Emperor Haile Selassie in 1936 brought it international odium. Its north and south, unified only in 1866 under the House of Savoy, never achieved a proper marriage its wars for independence from the Habsburgs in the mid-nineteenth century, and to win itself colonies in Africa later, turned out at best unvictorious, at most inglorious. Italy, parts of which remained in Habsburg possession until 1918, was AustriaвЂ™s antithesis вЂ“ unlucky in both love and war. вЂOthers wage war, you wage weddings.вЂ™ The Habsburgs did indeed have a habit of marrying into property, and this eventually brought them the greatest landholdings of any monarchy in Europe.

вЂHappy Austria,вЂ™ the seventeenth-century tag went.

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